Hoʻokumu ʻia ka hemahema kalapona ma muli o nā mea hana, nā kaʻina hana a me nā hana i ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana i ke kila kalapona a me ka ʻōwili (forging) kaʻina, me ka scarring, māwae, koena shrinkage, layered, kiko keʻokeʻo, segregation, non-metallic inclusions, e like me osteoporosis a banded.

Kaʻili ʻana

ʻAʻohe ʻili a me ka ʻili kila kumu wili i nā metala a i ʻole nā ​​poloka ʻili metalloid.Ua pili kekahi mau wahi o ke kino me ke kumu, he alelo;ʻo nā mea ʻē aʻe i pili ʻole me ka matrix, scaly.Hoʻopau ʻia ka mea hope i kekahi manawa i ka wā e hana ai, e hana ana i nā lua.ʻO ka ʻili kila (cast) i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka ʻili ma ke ʻano he haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa i ʻike ʻia e ka maka.Hoʻopili pololei nā hemahema scarring i ka maikaʻi a me ke ʻano o nā mea mechanical o ke kila.ʻAʻole ʻae ʻia ka scarring i mua o ke kila i hoʻopau ʻia.Hiki i ka scarring ke wili i nā ʻāpana no ka hoʻoponopono ʻana ma hope o ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka nui wili kila e kūpono i nā koi maʻamau.

māwae

ʻO nā māwae i hana ʻia e ke ʻano a me ka inoa ʻana i nā kumu like ʻole, e like me ka māwae, ka māwae transverse, māwae, māwae, laina lauoho, pohā (ka māwae nui), rattle (Jiao crack), ʻolokaʻa a me ka ʻāwīwī bifida.Mai ka hana ʻana i ke kila, ʻo ka ʻōwili ʻana i ka hana kila kokoke i kēlā me kēia kaʻina hana i nā kumu kumu e haki ai.

Hoʻemi koena

ʻO ke kila hoʻoheheʻe ʻia i ka wā paʻa, ma muli o ka emi ʻana o ka leo i loko o ka ingot a i ʻole billet ʻaʻole i hoʻopiha piha ʻia i ka ʻāpana kikowaena i hana ʻia e nā lua tubular a i ʻole ka dispersion.Ma mua o ka hoʻomaʻamaʻa wela, no ka mea liʻiliʻi loa ka ʻoki ʻana i ke poʻo a ʻoi aku ka hohonu o nā lua, e hoʻoneʻe ana i ka pau ʻole, ua kapa ʻia ke koena ʻāpana ʻo ke koena shrinkage.Ua māhele ʻia ke koena i ka shrinkage ma ke kikowaena o luna o ka ingot, a ʻo ka ingot ma luna i kapa ʻia he cratering.

Stratified

Hoʻopaʻa a ʻaʻole ʻike ʻia ma ke ʻano ʻelua ʻāpana o ka substrate kila.Hoʻohālikelike ʻia ka Stratification me ka hoʻoili ʻana i ke kaomi ʻili, ma ka ʻāpana longitudinal nā laina ʻeleʻele transverse he mea hoʻonui haʻahaʻa.ʻO nā māwae koʻikoʻi i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i loko o nā haʻihaʻi e loaʻa i ka hao, nā mea hoʻohui ʻole a me nā mea hoʻokaʻawale koʻikoʻi.Killed steel ingot boiling craters a me na lua ma ka hopena o ka baluna a me ka wili (forging) aole hiki ke welded pu e hana i stratification.Hoʻokomo nui i loko o ke kila a hiki ke hana i ka layering hoʻokaʻawale koʻikoʻi.ʻAʻole ʻae ʻia ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā hemahema kila e pili nui i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kila.

Lae Keokeo

Ma ke kila kūpaʻa, cross-sectional acid leaching ʻāpana hoʻāʻo, ʻaʻohe kānāwai o ka lōʻihi o ka lauoho lauoho.ʻO ia nā manawa haʻahaʻa i ka transverse specimen radial, concentric a irregularly distributed, multi-center, a i ʻole mai ka ili kila i kahi mamao.ʻO ka haʻihaʻi kila ma ka transverse a i ʻole ka longitudinal, ka poepoe a i ʻole nā ​​hiʻohiʻona keʻokeʻo oval.Awelika anawaena o 3 ~ 10mm.ʻAʻole ʻike maopopo ʻia ka pā kila ma ka longitudinal, transverse fracture hiʻohiʻona keʻokeʻo, akā ʻo ka haʻihaʻi i hōʻike ʻia i ka wehe a i ʻole nā ​​kiko keʻokeʻo oval ma z.I ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka haki ʻana i nā kiko keʻokeʻo, ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi e kinai mua i nā specimens a kinai ʻia.

Hoʻokaʻawale

Nā mea kila ʻole.ʻAʻole kēia ʻano mea maʻamau wale nō (e like me ke kalapona, manganese, silicon, sulfur, phosphorus) ka hāʻawi like ʻole ʻana, akā pū kekahi me nā inclusions non-metallic a me ka hāʻawi like ʻana o ke kinoea.ʻO ke kumu o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i ka wā paʻa o ke kila hoʻoheheʻe ʻia, nā mea hoʻokaʻawale kristal.Hoʻopili pinepine ʻia me ka degere o ka segregation ingot, ke kila, ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana a me nā kūlana hana hoʻolei.ʻO nā mea hoʻohui, ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i nā haumia a me nā kinoea, me ka mahana hoʻolei a me ka wikiwiki o ka hoʻolei ʻana, ʻoi aku ka koʻikoʻi o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana.ʻO ke kila hoʻohana ʻana i ka hoʻoulu ʻana electromagnetic hiki ke hōʻemi i ka degere o ka hoʻokaʻawale.Eia kekahi,ʻo ka hoʻonuiʻana i ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe kila he mea nui ia e hōʻemi ai i ka hoʻokaʻawale.

ʻO nā hoʻokomo ʻole metala

Aia i loko o ke kila kekahi mea metala a me nā mea ʻokoʻa nonmetallic ka substrate.Hoʻopau ia i ka hoʻomau a me nā waiwai isotropic o ka matrix metala.E like me ke kumu o ka non-metallic inclusions hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale i loko o endogenous inclusions, haole inclusions a me ko lakou mau huikau.ʻO ka hoʻokomo ʻana o ka endogenous ka deoxidation a me nā ʻano like ʻole o ke kino a me ke kemika i hana ʻia e ka hoʻokumu ʻana o nā kristal, ka nui o ka oxygen steel, sulfur, nitrogen, ma waena o nā mea ʻē aʻe me ka huahana hopena.

ʻoluʻolu

'A'ole mānoanoa etching hanana kila sectional tissue specimen.Thermal etching ma ke kila cross-section specimen, he nui nā pores a me nā specks ʻeleʻele hoʻolaha, rendering the phenomenon is not denser tissue, called loose when one of these pores and black specks distributed during the sub-test piece, concentrated in the center of kapa ʻia ke kikowaena he osteoporosis .Ua hōʻike ʻia nā kaha ʻokoʻa o ka lōʻihi o ka loaʻa ʻana o ka wela wela ma nā ʻano like ʻole, akā e nānā pono a nānā ʻia paha me ke aniani hoʻonui 8 a 10 mau manawa, ʻaʻohe hohonu.ʻIke ʻia ka porosity e ka nānā ʻana i ka microscopy electron a i ʻole nā ​​streaks hiki ke ʻike ʻia nā dendrites distal ʻaʻole i loaʻa nā hiʻohiʻona o ka ʻili o nā kristal metala.

Banded

Ma hope o ka hoʻomaʻamaʻa wela o ke kila haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa, ʻo ka microstructure o ferrite a me ka pearlite parallel ma ke ala ʻōwili, hoʻohele zonal, i hoʻokumu ʻia i ke kila kila.ʻO ka hoʻolālā banded ka mea maoli i ka hana like ʻole, nā waiwai hopena o ke kila, e hana ana i nā mea hana i ke kāne ʻē.ʻO ka ductility kila haʻahaʻa i hoʻopaʻa ʻia, ka paʻakikī a me ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻana, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka hopena i nā waiwai mechanical transverse.